Food Policy最新文献_第3页

Food safety, sampling inspection and optimization of regulatory resource allocation: Evidence from China’s aquatic food inspection 食品安全、抽样检验与监管资源优化配置：来自中国水产食品检验的证据

IF 6 1区经济学 Q1 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS & POLICY

Food Policy

Pub Date : 2026-01-01 Epub Date: 2025-10-23 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2025.102976

Yu Jin , Jiehong Zhou

Food safety is a widespread problem that challenge regulatory bodies and consumers around the world. Earlier studies emphasized resources as the key to improving regulatory effectiveness, but our study suggests this common sense should be reexamined, especially in the context of increasing regulatory burdens in food safety. Using China’s aquatic food safety sampling inspection data with over 300,000 samples from 2014 to 2022, we examine the effects of sampling inspection on the failure rate of aquatic foods, and try to identify supply chain segments where more regulatory resources should be allocated. The results show that increasing the number of sampling inspections significantly reduces both the failure rate in aquatic foods, but the effects of increased sampling inspection on improving aquatic food quality follows an inverted U-shaped pattern. Increasing the intensity of sampling inspections targeting the upstream segment in the supply chain can significantly reduce the failure rate of aquatic foods in the downstream segments. Moreover, increasing the frequency of sampling inspections is more effective in reducing the failure rate in high-risk segments of the aquatic food supply chain, such as restaurants, online stores, wet markets, wholesale markets, and fresh food retailers. Our study highlights the crucial impact of regulatory bodies sampling inspection on reducing the failure rate of aquatic foods, and in particular provides policy implications for optimizing the allocation of regulatory resources in different supply chain segments.

食品安全是一个普遍存在的问题，对世界各地的监管机构和消费者都构成了挑战。早期的研究强调资源是提高监管效率的关键，但我们的研究表明，这一常识应该重新审视，特别是在食品安全监管负担日益增加的背景下。利用2014年至2022年中国水产食品安全抽样检验数据，研究了抽样检验对水产食品不合格率的影响，并试图找出需要投入更多监管资源的供应链环节。结果表明，增加抽检次数显著降低了水产品的不合格率，但增加抽检对水产品质量的改善效果呈倒u型变化。加大供应链上游环节的抽查力度，可以显著降低下游环节水产食品的不合格率。此外，增加抽样检查频率对于降低水产食品供应链高风险环节（如餐馆、网上商店、菜市场、批发市场和生鲜食品零售商）的不良率更为有效。我们的研究强调了监管机构抽样检查对降低水产食品不良率的重要影响，特别是为优化不同供应链环节的监管资源配置提供了政策启示。

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引用次数: 0

Rice or Wheat? Evolution of cereal consumption in Bangladesh and Implications for policy 大米还是小麦？孟加拉国谷物消费的演变及其对政策的影响

IF 6 1区经济学 Q1 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS & POLICY

Food Policy

Pub Date : 2026-01-01 Epub Date: 2025-12-16 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2025.103027

Khondoker Abdul Mottaleb , Ashok K. Mishra

引用次数: 0

Domestic and international implications of reorienting China’s meat and feed import policies through unilateral liberalization 通过单方面自由化调整中国肉类和饲料进口政策的国内和国际影响

IF 6 1区经济学 Q1 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS & POLICY

Food Policy

Pub Date : 2026-01-01 Epub Date: 2025-11-20 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2025.103009

Rongbo Wang , Wusheng Yu , Lijuan Cao , Tianxiang Li , Jing Zhu

China’s vast livestock sector depends on massive feed grain and oilseeds imports from relatively few suppliers. In contrast, its meat imports, still a relatively small share of its domestic consumption, can be sourced from more suppliers. This study investigates the potential impacts of the reorientation of soybean and meat imports on China’s food security and the associated global spillover effects. We simulate a series of hypothetical unilateral tariff reductions and non-tariff measure relaxation scenarios on meat imports by China, using the GTAP model and a recalibrated GTAP database. Our results indicate that: 1) rising meat imports can help reduce China’s reliance on soybean and maize imports and support its import diversification efforts, especially through reductions of tariff barriers and nontariff measures on pig meats; 2) such a transition promotes diversification in China’s agricultural production structure, reducing maize acreage while encouraging the cultivation of rice, wheat, soybeans, fruits and vegetables, thus strengthening food security in a “Greater Food” approach; 3) at the global scale, this transition can reshape the global grain production structure, benefiting major meat-exporting countries at the expense of feed grain producers.

中国庞大的畜牧业依赖于从相对较少的供应商那里大量进口饲料谷物和油籽。相比之下，中国的肉类进口仍然只占国内消费的一小部分，可以从更多的供应商那里采购。本研究探讨了大豆和肉类进口调整对中国粮食安全的潜在影响及其全球溢出效应。我们使用GTAP模型和重新校准的GTAP数据库，模拟了一系列假设的中国肉类进口单边关税削减和非关税措施放松的情景。研究结果表明：1)肉类进口的增加有助于减少中国对大豆和玉米进口的依赖，并支持其进口多样化的努力，特别是通过减少猪肉的关税壁垒和非关税措施；2)这种转变促进了中国农业生产结构的多样化，减少了玉米种植面积，同时鼓励种植水稻、小麦、大豆、水果和蔬菜，从而加强了“大粮食”方式下的粮食安全；3)在全球范围内，这一转变可以重塑全球粮食生产结构，使主要肉类出口国受益，而饲料生产国则受损。

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引用次数: 0

Effectiveness of a minimum pricing policy for the consumption of soft drinks in Mexico 墨西哥软饮料消费最低价格政策的有效性

IF 6 1区经济学 Q1 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS & POLICY

Food Policy

Pub Date : 2026-01-01 Epub Date: 2025-11-14 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2025.102997

Wisdom Dogbe , Cesar Revoredo-Giha

The government of Mexico introduced the sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) tax and energy-dense tax in 2014 to help addressing the overweight and obesity problem. The literature suggests that the tax has led to a 4–10% reduction in SSB consumption. However, noncommunicable diseases such as diabetes and ischemic heart disease are still the leading causes of death in Mexico, accounting for approximately 59% of deaths in 2021. In other sectors, such as alcohol and cigarettes, several studies have provided evidence that minimum pricing outperforms value-added and excise taxes. Such a policy, however, has not been applied in the food and non-alcoholic drinks sector. The aim of this study is to simulate the minimum price (post-SSB tax) required to achieve a policy target of a 20% reduction in soft drink consumption. For this purpose, an Exact Affine Stone Index demand model was estimated using the 2022 National Survey on Households Income and Expenditures (ENIGH in Spanish) to compute expenditure and price elasticities, which were later used to derive shadow prices for soft drinks. The results show that a policy target of a 20% reduction in soft drink consumption would require a minimum increase in the current price by 16%; however, the increase would be different for urban and rural households. Additionally, the policy would increase the demand for fruits, vegetables, fruit juices and fish and seafood. Finally, the results indicate that although both uniform excise taxes and minimum price policies are effective, the latter with a policy target in place would have a greater impact on soft drink demand than the former.

墨西哥政府在2014年引入了含糖饮料税和能量密集税，以帮助解决超重和肥胖问题。文献表明，该税导致SSB消费减少了4-10%。然而，糖尿病和缺血性心脏病等非传染性疾病仍然是墨西哥的主要死亡原因，约占2021年死亡人数的59%。在其他行业，如酒精和香烟，一些研究提供的证据表明，最低定价优于增值税和消费税。然而，这一政策并未在食品和非酒精饮料部门实施。本研究的目的是模拟实现软饮料消费减少20%的政策目标所需的最低价格（后ssb税）。为此，使用2022年全国家庭收入和支出调查（西班牙语为ENIGH）估计了精确仿射石指数需求模型，以计算支出和价格弹性，后来用于得出软饮料的影子价格。研究结果表明，要实现软饮料消费量减少20%的政策目标，目前的价格至少要上涨16%；然而，城市和农村家庭的增幅将有所不同。此外，该政策将增加对水果、蔬菜、果汁、鱼和海鲜的需求。最后，结果表明，尽管统一消费税和最低价格政策都是有效的，但有政策目标的后者对软饮料需求的影响比前者更大。

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引用次数: 0

Food waste behaviour prediction and policy recommender system: data-driven machine learning approaches 食物浪费行为预测和政策建议系统：数据驱动的机器学习方法

IF 6 1区经济学 Q1 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS & POLICY

Food Policy

Pub Date : 2026-01-01 Epub Date: 2026-01-09 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2025.103032

Mehdi A. Kamran , Reza Babazadeh , AmirReza Gharibi , Osman El-Said , Samira Afsharfar , Jokha Al Saqri

The rising economic, environmental, and social consequences of food waste necessitate comprehensive studies to identify the primary drivers of household food waste (HFW) and to develop effective strategies for reducing it. This study predicts Food Waste Behavior (FWB) using a two-phase approach. In the first phase, an extensive literature review, complemented by expert opinions, is conducted to identify the most influential factors contributing to HFW. A Structural Equation Model (SEM) is then developed and validated using data obtained from a customized survey of 300 Omani households to establish the theoretical relationships among these factors. Next, IF–THEN rules derived from expert input through a structured Delphi process were used to assign FWB levels to all possible combinations of identified indicators via a Full Factorial Design (FFD). This dataset was then used to train several machine learning (ML) models—including Decision Tree (DT), Random Forest (RF), K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN), Support Vector Machine (SVM), Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP), Light Gradient Boosting Machine (LightGBM), and Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS)—to predict FWB in households. Among these models, MLP and SVM exhibited the best performance, achieving 99% classification accuracy.

In the second phase, the focus turns to policy intervention, achieved by creating an intelligent policy recommendation system. This system is informed by a detailed review of global food waste policies, supplemented by expert insights, and customized for the Omani context. The policy recommendation tool offers tailored strategies, including incentives, aimed at improving awareness and reducing HFW behaviors. This AI-based decision support system assists policymakers in crafting and implementing targeted interventions to reduce HFW in Oman. Although validated with data from Oman, the framework is adaptable to other countries. With local survey data, the ML models can be retrained to assess FWB and recommend context-specific mitigation policies, offering a scalable, data-driven tool for global use.

食物浪费的经济、环境和社会后果日益严重，需要进行全面的研究，以确定家庭食物浪费（HFW）的主要驱动因素，并制定有效的减少战略。本研究采用两阶段方法预测食物浪费行为。在第一阶段，进行广泛的文献综述，并辅以专家意见，以确定对HFW最有影响的因素。然后，利用对300个阿曼家庭的定制调查数据，开发并验证了结构方程模型（SEM），以建立这些因素之间的理论关系。接下来，通过结构化德尔菲过程从专家输入中得出的IF-THEN规则被用于通过全析因设计（FFD）将FWB水平分配给所有可能的识别指标组合。然后，该数据集用于训练几个机器学习（ML）模型，包括决策树（DT）、随机森林（RF）、k近邻（KNN）、支持向量机（SVM）、多层感知器（MLP）、光梯度增强机（LightGBM）和自适应神经模糊推理系统（ANFIS），以预测家庭中的FWB。其中，MLP和SVM表现最好，分类准确率达到99%。在第二阶段，重点转向政策干预，通过创建智能政策推荐系统来实现。该系统以对全球食物浪费政策的详细审查为依据，辅以专家见解，并根据阿曼的情况进行定制。政策建议工具提供了量身定制的战略，包括激励措施，旨在提高认识和减少HFW行为。这种基于人工智能的决策支持系统有助于决策者制定和实施有针对性的干预措施，以减少阿曼的HFW。尽管该框架得到了阿曼数据的验证，但也适用于其他国家。利用本地调查数据，可以对ML模型进行重新训练，以评估FWB并建议针对具体情况的缓解策略，从而提供可扩展的数据驱动工具，供全球使用。

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引用次数: 0

Legal responsibility and regulatory compliance with food information on e-grocery platforms: an Italian case study offering insights for future policies and consumer protection in the European context 电子杂货平台上食品信息的法律责任和监管合规：一个意大利案例研究，为欧洲背景下的未来政策和消费者保护提供见解

IF 6 1区经济学 Q1 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS & POLICY

Food Policy

Pub Date : 2026-01-01 Epub Date: 2025-12-02 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2025.103013

Andrea Gori, Martina Sartoni, Andrea Armani, Roberta Nuvoloni

In recent years, e-grocery has grown across the European Union (EU), with regulations imposing the provision of mandatory information for prepacked food products (PFPs) even in online sales. However, recent studies have shown that e-grocery platforms do not always fully comply with these requirements. Thus, this study aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of e-grocery services offered by major large-scale retailers (LSRs) in Italy, focusing on: i) territorial coverage at the provincial level; ii) the legal responsibility in the provision of mandatory information; and iii) the degree of compliance of 414 PFPs with EU and national legislations concerning mandatory food information. Results revealed greater diffusion of e-grocery services in Northern and Central-Northern Italy, with relevant disparities in the South and islands, reflecting structural and infrastructural market differences that are consistent with patterns observed across EU. All the analyzed platforms were owned and directly managed by the LSRs, thereby assigning them a central responsibility in ensuring compliance with current regulations. The analysis of the information provided on PFPs revealed a high percentage of compliance (92.8%), but also a non-negligible proportion of non-compliant products (7.2%), aligning with other EU researches. These findings highlight the need for clearer, and more accessible online food information to support compliance to regulations and consumer trust. The study also offers valuable insights and recommendations for stakeholders across the EU regarding regulatory compliance in online food sales, with important implications for consumer protection, enforcement practices, and the development of future policies in the continuously evolving context of digital food commerce.

近年来，电子杂货在整个欧盟（EU）蓬勃发展，相关法规规定，即使在在线销售中，也必须为预包装食品（pfp）提供强制性信息。然而，最近的研究表明，电子杂货平台并不总是完全符合这些要求。因此，本研究旨在全面概述意大利主要大型零售商（lsr）提供的电子杂货服务，重点关注：i)省一级的区域覆盖；Ii)提供强制性信息的法律责任；以及iii) 414种pfp符合欧盟和有关强制性食品信息的国家立法的程度。结果显示，电子杂货服务在意大利北部和中北部的扩散程度更高，而在南部和岛屿上存在相关差异，反映了结构和基础设施市场差异，这些差异与整个欧盟观察到的模式一致。所有分析的平台都由lsr拥有并直接管理，从而赋予它们确保遵守当前法规的核心责任。对pfp提供的信息的分析显示，合规比例很高（92.8%），但也有不可忽略的不合规产品比例（7.2%），与其他欧盟研究一致。这些发现强调需要更清晰、更容易获取的在线食品信息，以支持遵守法规和消费者的信任。该研究还为整个欧盟的利益相关者提供了关于在线食品销售法规遵从性的宝贵见解和建议，对消费者保护、执法实践以及在不断发展的数字食品商业背景下制定未来政策具有重要意义。

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引用次数: 0

The impacts of nutrient- and health-optimal diets on the food system in Switzerland 营养和健康最佳饮食对瑞士食品系统的影响

IF 6 1区经济学 Q1 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS & POLICY

Food Policy

Pub Date : 2026-01-01 Epub Date: 2025-12-03 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2025.103014

Utkur Djanibekov , Albert von Ow , Alba Reguant-Closa , Daria Loginova , Cédric Furrer , Mélanie Douziech , Stefan Mann , Thomas Nemecek

Current dietary choices deviate from the recommended diet and are unhealthy. Food consumption is interlinked with the food system, and improving dietary choices will have an impact on the food system. The objective of this study is to analyze the impact of nutrient- and health-optimized diets for an average Swiss consumer on the food system. We analyze three scenarios, including projected future diets and diets that optimize nutrient and health indices. We use the Swiss Sustainable Food System model, which is an ex-ante dynamic programming model. The model considers agricultural production, processing, trade, storage, and consumption stages of the food system. The results show that the projected future diet yields slightly better nutrient intake, but slightly fewer health benefits compared to current diets. Diets optimizing nutrient intake and health impacts yield substantial health benefits. Diets optimizing nutrient intake and health impacts increase the consumption of plant-based products by 55% and 78% respectively, in terms of calories, in contrast to the reference scenario, whereas they reduce the consumption of animal-based products by 35% and 43% respectively, in terms of calories. To meet the demand for these dietary shifts, agricultural production should change by increasing the area of crops producing plant-based foods and decreasing livestock numbers. Import dependency increases with diets designed to improve the health of the population. Environmental outcomes result in trade-offs, with greenhouse gas and nitrogen emissions decreasing, while water use and pesticide risks in surface water and semi-natural habitats increase.

目前的饮食选择偏离了推荐的饮食，是不健康的。粮食消费与粮食系统是相互关联的，改善饮食选择将对粮食系统产生影响。本研究的目的是分析营养和健康优化饮食对普通瑞士消费者对食品系统的影响。我们分析了三种情景，包括预测的未来饮食和优化营养和健康指数的饮食。我们使用瑞士可持续食品系统模型，这是一个事前动态规划模型。该模型考虑了粮食系统的农业生产、加工、贸易、储存和消费阶段。结果表明，与目前的饮食相比，预计的未来饮食会带来略好的营养摄入，但对健康的益处略少。优化营养摄入和健康影响的饮食产生了实质性的健康益处。与参考情景相比，优化营养摄入和健康影响的饮食使植物性产品的卡路里摄入量分别增加了55%和78%，而动物性产品的卡路里摄入量分别减少了35%和43%。为了满足这些饮食变化的需求，农业生产应该通过增加生产植物性食品的作物面积和减少牲畜数量来改变。进口依赖随着旨在改善人口健康的饮食而增加。环境结果导致权衡，温室气体和氮排放减少，而地表水和半自然栖息地的用水和农药风险增加。

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引用次数: 0

Food surplus and the development of food banks in Africa 非洲粮食过剩和粮食银行的发展

IF 6 1区经济学 Q1 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS & POLICY

Food Policy

Pub Date : 2026-01-01 Epub Date: 2025-12-12 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2025.103015

Daniel N. Warshawsky

Food banks have developed across the world to reduce food insecurity and food waste. In Africa, thirty-five countries have food bank systems in operation. As food banks increase across the continent, more research is needed to analyze the development of food banks in African contexts. It is in many of these lower-income regions with underdeveloped infrastructure, lack of a strong formalized corporate food industry, weak or corrupt government institutions, and extreme poverty where food banks may be less likely to succeed. To this end, this paper examines case studies of food bank systems in Kenya, Ethiopia, Ghana, and Uganda to understand the logics of African food banking and the rationale for food bank development across the continent. Findings in this research suggest global food banking networks are central players in the development of African food banks as they guide the structure and growth of local food banks. Even with this assistance, most African food banks collect food in an ad hoc manner, rather than a systematic approach to food recovery. In addition, most African food banks have weak or non-existent connections with government or retailers. African food banks are also overdependent on global food banking networks for funding and technical support. In all, these data point to a relatively uneven food banking landscape, as the food bank model based on corporate surplus may be limited in the African context. Although there is discussion of an emerging African food banking network, the African food bank model remains unclear at this point.

粮食银行在世界各地发展，以减少粮食不安全和粮食浪费。在非洲，有35个国家建立了食品银行系统。随着食物银行在整个非洲大陆的增加，需要更多的研究来分析非洲背景下食物银行的发展。在许多低收入地区，基础设施不发达，缺乏强大的正规食品企业，政府机构薄弱或腐败，以及极端贫困，食品银行可能不太可能成功。为此，本文考察了肯尼亚、埃塞俄比亚、加纳和乌干达食品银行系统的案例研究，以了解非洲食品银行的逻辑以及整个非洲大陆食品银行发展的基本原理。这项研究的结果表明，全球食品银行网络是非洲食品银行发展的核心参与者，因为它们指导着当地食品银行的结构和增长。即使有了这种援助，大多数非洲粮食银行还是以一种临时的方式收集粮食，而不是以系统的方式回收粮食。此外，大多数非洲食品银行与政府或零售商的联系薄弱或根本不存在。非洲粮食银行还过度依赖全球粮食银行网络提供资金和技术支持。总之，这些数据表明了一个相对不均衡的食品银行格局，因为基于企业盈余的食品银行模式在非洲的背景下可能是有限的。尽管有一个新兴的非洲食品银行网络的讨论，非洲食品银行的模式在这一点上仍然不清楚。

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引用次数: 0

GLP-1 use and protein demand GLP-1的使用和蛋白质需求

IF 6 1区经济学 Q1 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS & POLICY

Food Policy

Pub Date : 2026-01-01 Epub Date: 2025-12-12 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2025.103026

Justin D. Bina , Glynn T. Tonsor , Timothy J. Richards

The use of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists for weight loss is reshaping food demand, particularly for protein. This research estimates how GLP-1 use alters protein demand curves using methods of causal inference applied to structural demand modeling. Data from a public survey are balanced via matching to address endogenous selection into GLP-1 treatment. Demand shifts and rotations are then estimated using a discrete choice model and an Almost Ideal Demand System. GLP-1 use increases willingness-to-pay for most evaluated protein products, though the effects vary by product and outlet. Own-price elasticities for several retail products become up to 0.22 more inelastic. Our findings of shift effects of GLP-1 use on protein demand indicate externalities that are internal to the U.S. food system and that extend beyond simple consumption changes.

使用胰高血糖素样肽-1 （GLP-1）受体激动剂减肥正在重塑食物需求，特别是对蛋白质的需求。本研究使用应用于结构需求模型的因果推理方法估计GLP-1使用如何改变蛋白质需求曲线。来自公众调查的数据通过匹配来平衡，以解决GLP-1治疗的内生选择。然后使用离散选择模型和几乎理想需求系统估计需求转移和旋转。GLP-1的使用增加了大多数评估蛋白产品的支付意愿，尽管效果因产品和出口而异。一些零售产品的自有价格弹性增加了0.22。我们关于GLP-1使用对蛋白质需求的转移效应的发现表明，外部性是美国食品系统内部的，并且超出了简单的消费变化。

引用次数: 0

The impact of Nutri-Score on elderly consumers’ perceptions nutrition - score对老年消费者认知的影响

IF 6 1区经济学 Q1 AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS & POLICY

Food Policy

Pub Date : 2026-01-01 Epub Date: 2025-11-19 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodpol.2025.103007

Vincenza Volpe , Alessia Lombardi , Riccardo Vecchio

The growing aging population presents significant public health challenges worldwide, particularly in terms of nutrition and diet-related diseases. In Italy, where more than a quarter of the population is aged 65 and older, this issue is especially pressing. Many elderly individuals struggle to make nutritionally informed choices due to limited awareness and knowledge about food quality. This study examines the impact of the Nutri-Score (NS) label on the perceived healthiness of food products among Italian older adults. Applying a within-subjects experimental design, 557 elderly consumers, partially or fully responsible for household food shopping, evaluated five commonly consumed products—pasta, extra virgin olive oil, mozzarella cheese, canned tuna in olive oil, and milk chocolate bar—both with and without the NS label. Findings reveal that the NS significantly impacts health perceptions and decreases taste expectations across food products. Additionally, individual characteristics such as dietary habits and NS knowledge influence these changes. Policy makers and stakeholders should further explore the appropriateness of NS as an effective method to guide elderly consumers toward healthier food choices.

日益增长的老龄化人口给全球公共卫生带来了重大挑战，特别是在营养和饮食相关疾病方面。在意大利，超过四分之一的人口年龄在65岁及以上，这个问题尤为紧迫。由于对食品质量的认识和知识有限，许多老年人很难做出营养知情的选择。本研究考察了营养评分（NS）标签对意大利老年人食品健康感知的影响。采用受试者内实验设计，557名老年消费者，部分或全部负责家庭食品采购，评估了五种常见的消费产品-意大利面，特级初榨橄榄油，马苏里拉奶酪，橄榄油金枪鱼罐头和牛奶巧克力棒-有和没有NS标签。研究结果表明，NS显著影响健康观念，并降低对食品味道的期望。此外，个人特征，如饮食习惯和NS知识也会影响这些变化。政策制定者和利益相关者应进一步探讨膳食营养指标作为引导老年消费者选择更健康食品的有效方法的适用性。

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引用次数: 0